Helminthic therapy and neuropsychiatric disorders

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Helminths are capable of improving neuropsychiatric function, and all four species of therapeutic helminth appear to make a positive contribution to psychological wellbeing.

Socio-medical studies of humans "self-treating" with helminths as well as limited studies in animal models strongly suggest that helminth therapy may be a productive approach toward treating a range of neuropsychiatric disorders, including chronic fatigue, migraine headaches, depression and anxiety disorders. [1]

The scientific evidence[edit | edit source]

2021 Oct 20 Parasite-Derived Excretory-Secretory Products Alleviate Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis and Improve Cognitive Impairment Induced by a High-Fat Diet -- Full text | PDF

The present study revealed for the first time that the parasite-derived ESPs alleviate gut microbiota dysbiosis and improve cognitive impairment induced by a high-fat diet.

2021 Jan 12 IL-33 Changes Our "Gut Feelings" about Serotonin -- Full text

2020 Nov 20 Interleukin-33 promotes serotonin release from enterochromaffin cells for intestinal homeostasis -- Full text | PDF

2020 May 28 Endocannabinoid Regulation of Helminth Induced Hypophagia -- PDF (Capstone project)

2020 Jan Potential application of helminth therapy for resolution of neuroinflammation in neuropsychiatric disorders

2019 Sep Invisible Designers: Brain Evolution Through the Lens of Parasite Manipulation

2018 Oct 25 Host- and Helminth-Derived Endocannabinoids That Have Effects on Host Immunity Are Generated during Infection -- Full text | PDF (media coverage "Getting high on worms")

2018 Sep 20 Modulation of the immune response by helminths: a role for serotonin? -- Full text | PDF

2018 Aug 15 Intestinal worms eating neuropsychiatric disorders? Apparently so -- PDF

2016 Sep The Microbiota, Immunoregulation, and Mental Health: Implications for Public Health -- Full text | PDF

2014 Jun Microbiota, immunoregulatory old friends and psychiatric disorders

2012 Jun Microbial "Old Friends", immunoregulation and psychiatric disorders

2012 May Can we vaccinate against depression?

Negative effect (hypothesised). This paper should be read in conjunction with Deworming debunked.

2017 Jan 10 Gut microbiota disturbance during helminth infection: can it affect cognition and behaviour of children? -- Full text | PDF

Depression[edit | edit source]

The Depression-Inflammation Connection (Andrew Weil, HuffPost, Nov 4, 2011)

Reduced depression / improved mood[edit | edit source]

HDC is mentioned a lot in this context, and, since HDC is taken regularly, usually every 2 weeks, its users can benefit from a repeated post-inoculation 'bounce’. This is a brief period of temporary symptom relief accompanied by a sudden feeling of unusual wellness, perhaps with a strong sense of calm, focus, happiness and lightheartedness.

I like how it puts me in a good mood for a day or two when I first take it.

I also experienced a significantly elevated mood that night after taking just 10 HDC, the elevated mood lasted until the end of the next day. [2]

For some people, this effect may be repeated after every dose.

... every dose of HDC's is followed by a delightful stream of energy that lasts almost a week. [3]

Within 24 hours of taking HDC I feel much calmer. That feeling lasts a few days, before it lets up a bit, but I still continue feeling calmer than usual up to 30 days after dosing, when their effects completely wear off… If I could regularly dose, say, weekly, I probably would see my anxiety completely resolved. [4]

In other cases, this effect may reduce over time.

The first day I take HDC it usually puts me in a really nice mood, especially the first time I did it. It's not exactly euphoric but I noticed it and counted on it… First time, (it lasted) 48 hours. Second time, 24 hours. Third time, 12 hours. Fourth time, 12 hours.

However, this effect on neuropsychiatric function is not unique to HDC. It is also seen with TSO, NA and TTO.

My mood was the first indicator that TSO was working. I became calmer and happier despite my physical symptoms. [5] I find TSO is the best for mood and general feeling of well being as well as increased energy. Hookworm and (human) whipworm both work as well, it just takes longer. [6]

My daughter started TSO last week and we are already seeing an improvement in her mood and energy on a low dose of 500 ova. [7]

TSO cured a mood disorder I didn't realize I had until it was gone. [8]

I would like to confirm positive effect of TSO on mood stabilization as well. Even with low dose in my case (300 ova bi-weekly). [9]

I didn't have depression, just a generally negative view of life, but NA has (unexpectedly) made me a whole lot more positive and even happy. [10] It's noticeable enough that I would continue with them even if that was the only benefit. [11]

The following comment was made 6 weeks after inoculation with 25 hookworm larvae.

What is already interesting is my steady and calm mind.

More reports:

The first report is more detailed than the quotes that follow it.

Migraine, depression and autoimmunity relieved by TSO and NA

"The worms have removed my crippling depression and fuzzy head so I'm very happy." (Reported in a private discussion, Jan 2012)

"I second getting some mood benefits from HT, which many others have noted as well." (Link expired)

"The thing that surprised me most about the therapy is an increase in general well being. I sleep less, am more alert, am able to think more clearly, and have a brighter mood. I jokingly say that I wasn't depressed prior to worms, and I'm even more not depressed now." (Link expired)

“I inoculated with hookworm hoping that it would help my chronic sinus issues... But I wasn't expecting any changes in personality, so they came as a shock. My lifelong battle with depression and anxiety seems to be over. And I'm also smarter again (like when I was a kid).”

“I'd say hookworm has improved my mood… I wasn't actively depressed when I started hookworm but I definitely noticed a reduction in how much I had to use CBT-style challenging of my thinking.” [12]

“I have been depressed most of my life. That eased a bit with IV magnesium. But it changed dramatically about 20 weeks after starting hookworms. My mood improved dramatically and I just felt happy - my psychological issues just disappeared.”

“The crippling morning depression I would experience has all but completely vanished. When I now wake up in the morning, I feel positive about getting up and optimistic without feeling drained or as if I had just gone to sleep an hour ago.” (Written after 5 months with hookworms and two months of taking TSO for systemic lupus.) [13]

“I have good days now (after hosting NA for five years) when I never had good days for years, and sometimes I actually feel incredibly happy, something else that never really happened.” [14]

“My depression and anxiety and brain fog have disappeared on NA.” [15]

“I can attest to a huge improvement in my anxiety and depression within just a few weeks of my first NA dose (off all meds now) but I'd say I still have some mild residual symptoms.” [16]

"Hookworms took about 24 weeks to begin to make a dent in depression - now about 2.5 years into helminths, I have some days where I'm downright optimistic. Not many, but after decades of depression it's a huge change." [17]

☹️ “I have anxiety and depression and have not really noticed any differences.” [18]

"My diagnosed anxiety/depression went down to zero. I can't get unhappy if I try. If this was the only good effect (of using HDC) it would be enough." (Link expired)

“NA has definitely helped with depression, although I do not feel that my depression is severe, compared to that of others. It is definitely seasonal… After about 6 months, I began to notice improvement in mood.” [19]

“As pretty much a lifelong depression sufferer (since onset of puberty anyway), I generally never liked the flat emotional effect I got from antidepressants, and always felt my depression was very much related (coincidentally at least) to my severe seasonal allergy symptoms. By the time I started hosting HW, I had given up on antidepressants for several years, and had just resigned myself to pushing through life without psych meds. About a year into hosting NA for severe allergies and asthma, I unexpectedly noticed nearly total resolution of my depressive symptoms.” [20]

“NA resolved my chronic depression - it was one of those weird, gradual, unexpected benefits.” [21]

“HDC (I take 10 every three weeks) have a positive impact on my mood. My case may be different from others, but... PANS is what leads to my low mood. In PANS, autoantibodies attach to dopamine and glutamate receptors in the basal ganglia, which blocks their transmission in normal amounts. I think my good mood when I take HDC is likely because it helps whatever is leading to those autoantibodies being in the wrong place (my basal ganglia receptors), so more dopamine and glutamate can reach their proper destination. Not sure if these mechanics apply to many other disorders, though.” [22]

“I thought the NA didn't do much for my mental health. But it's clear to me now that they were helping me. I got rid of my NA as part of an experiment to see if they were contributing to a sudden and consistent drop in energy I've been experiencing since May. I find that I am more depressed without them. Small problems can now push me over into the realm of crying spells and panic attacks. The HDC was helping with social anxiety and OCD, but it seems the NA was supporting a higher baseline of mental health and stability. More NA on the way to restock.” [23]

“I’ve had so much success from the two types of friends... it’s the miracle I’ve been searching for (for 18 years) since 2001. I can’t even tell you how much happier I am now that my depression, fatigue, and extreme food sensitivities are pretty much resolved. I think the NA have been the most helpful for me, with TSO as a great backup.” [24]

"I’ve been previously diagnosed with depression, anxiety, PTSD, panic disorder, and a mood disorder, and for 10 or more years, life had seemed like a foggy dream. But after almost two years with NA, I realized that HT has significantly helped me with my mental health. It’s given me a sense of clarity that I haven’t had in years. I continue to require therapy as needed, and I’ve been treated with a wide range of medications over the years, but I’m currently only on one anxiety medication. I continue to be so thankful for HT. It’s life altering." (Edited from this post: [25].)

“I am pretty sure that my NA have dealt with my insomnia, probably part of what remains the biggest, and unexpected, benefit of taking on these wonderful companion animals: an end to depression and anxiety of a level such that I had to take tricyclic antidepressants to function.” [26]

"TSO was the magic mood machine for me." [27]

"I've been doing HDC for five months now. Started with five every three weeks. I expected no results for at least a week, but noticed an improvement in energy and mood in two days. While mood and energy are up, joint pain is down." [28]

"My mental health has been way better since starting helminth as I was pretty low on and off for a long time before that and especially bad when I was low in energy or sick, like when I had covid. After dosing with 3 NA, then 5, and now 3 NA every 3 months, I haven’t experienced that depression except for 1 day following another covid infection. I’m feeling like seeing people which I couldn’t face last year until well down the track." (Edited from this post.)

For further accounts of how helminthic therapy has reduced depression, see the following.

Practices and outcomes of self-treatment with helminths based on physicians' observations (PDF) (In particular, see Table 1)

Temporarily increased depression[edit | edit source]

Occasionally, depression may increase temporarily following initial inoculation with helminths. This is usually, but not necessarily, the result of using doses that are too high.

After first small group of NA, I became much more depressed for about 10-12 weeks, then got back to previous mood level. [29]

I have hit a patch of depression here at week 9 of my first inoculation with 3NA and I am feeling very bleak. [30]

I also feel quite depressed, will be 9 weeks for me on Tuesday. [31]

After first small group of NA, I became much more depressed for about 10-12 weeks, then got back to previous mood level. [32]

I experience plummeting mood following an NA inoculation. Dosing amounts are important with NA. [33]

When I used HDC, I found that a high dose made me agitated, where a low dose would lift my depression within hours from the moment of taking it. [34]

My wife, who suffers from clinical depression, took 1 NA each month for 3 months. Then the Dr. told her to take 5 at once despite us asking multiple times if this would cause depression. We were told no each time. So my wife took the 5 at once as the doctor had suggested. A few days later, she began to get depressed and could not get out of bed for about 7-10 days. Cried all day. We killed the colony about 4 days later to prevent my wife from going to hospital because the depression was that bad. It was about another 2 weeks before she felt better again. (Edited from two posts: [35] [36].)

3.5 years in, I now have times where I even feel positive and optimistic, which is a huge improvement over a lifetime of clinical depression. But it’s also the first symptom to return, especially if I take a dose of NA that’s a little too much. Last dose was 7, and 3 days later I started 9 days of deep despair. I know it’s temporary, so I just hang on and get through it, but now I know 7 is too many. [37]

… the participant abruptly halted his antidepression medications and began taking HDCs. Although confident in his actions because of the effects of HDCs on his adult daughter and a friend, the outcome was severe depression. The participant resumed his medication and, fortunately, recovered rapidly. [38]

Anxiety[edit | edit source]

Reduced anxiety[edit | edit source]

"My symptoms of anxiety continue to get gradually better." (Link expired)

"... the hookworms... kicked in about 24 weeks after inoculation, which ended my 15 month nightmare with the anxiety." (Link expired)

"I thought i am getting crazy... visited a psychologist ... they even made a CT scan. But with the right diet and helminthic therapy... i am much more balanced now. (Link expired)

“One of the best benefits now is relief from anxiety and muscular tension. I’m waking up feeling rested, with a very relaxed back and legs, and am drowsy enough to take naps, which creates a virtuous cycle.” [39]

"My worms have seemingly completely zapped my anxiety. It takes a lot for me to feel anxious and it's a huge relief after having anxiety and panic attacks starting in early childhood… They have also dramatically reduced my daughter's anxiety. It was always bad, from infancy, but … she's had the best school year ever, socially. She's ten thousand times better, a completely unanticipated improvement. Our school psychologist said it was like she was a different kid." (Reported in a private discussion, Mar 2012)

"My younger son also had severe anxiety issues which evaporated after HW. He was on medication in fact for 2 years for it but hasn't been on it in years now." (Reported to the Facebook Helminthic Therapy Support Group [40], Mar 2012)

"He felt much less anxiety and much more social than he would normally. (I have noticed this effect as well and wonder now how much anxiety and a desire not to be social is related to inflammation…)" [41]

"My anxiety is still significantly reduced from pre-inoculation. Things just do not bother me the way that they did. I really feel as though my anxiety just completely vanished with the first inoculation. It is a great feeling after dealing with a lot of anxiety my entire life." [42]

“This therapy can be fantastic for anxiety reduction and we've seen it in every member of our family. My poor little girl had rampaging anxiety and nothing made it better. She had so much pain all the time that she was constantly anticipating more pain and very defensive. She couldn't stand to listen to a story with anything scary (she didn't want to listen to Mr. Rogers telling the story of Goldilocks and the Three Bears, that's how bad it was). Then she got hookworm. Her anxiety vaporized completely, possibly for the first time in her entire life. She completely changed. Last year, she read all of the Harry Potter books and watched all the movies -- that's how much lower her anxiety and pain are now.” [43]

“I noticed the relaxed feeling with HW as well. They gave me an overall good feeling and relieved debilitating anxiety that kept me from doing things that I love doing and from seeing friends.” [44]

“The HW also had a fairly dramatic effect on my anxiety levels." (Reported to a closed group, Aug 2013)

“I inoculated with hookworm hoping that it would help my chronic sinus issues. I still can't believe how much better my sinuses are. But I wasn't expecting any changes in personality, so they came as a shock. My lifelong battle with depression and anxiety seems to be over. And I'm also smarter again (like when I was a kid).” [45]

“After hosting hookworm I no longer have bouts of depression and anxiety.” [46]

“My depression and anxiety and brain fog have disappeared on NA.” [47]

“I can attest to a huge improvement in my anxiety and depression within just a few weeks of my first NA dose (off all meds now) but I'd say I still have some mild residual symptoms.” [48]

“His anxiety is almost completely gone and the OCD is still there but not as profound. He is back at school after missing most of last year due to anxiety/school refusal. I highly recommend trying HDC's. It really has been the treatment that has brought our (12 year old) son back.” [49]

☹️ “I have anxiety and depression and have not really noticed any differences.” [50]

“Within 24 hours of taking HDC I feel much calmer. That feeling lasts a few days, before it lets up a bit, but I still continue feeling calmer than usual up to 30 days after dosing, when their effects completely wear off… If I could regularly dose, say, weekly, I probably would see my anxiety completely resolved.” (Link expired)

“Now 5 months in, I have seen the most dramatic change in anxiety symptoms. Also brain fog has just slipped away… So I do feel hookworm has been instrumental in bringing down the symptoms of anxiety to where it is now.” [51]

“Wormy update after 3 months: I am now on 50 HDC. I see just mild improvement in food allergies, but I feel calm, no anxiety! Anxiety was always a big issue for me and the antidepressants were not helping enough. Now I feel much better so that I can exercise every day.” [52]

“In 2013 I was diagnosed with anxiety resulting in extended time off work and medication. I first tried HDC in 2016 after exhausting every other avenue outside of medication that I could think of. I found instant relief from my anxiety symptoms and I still take them every 2 or 3 weeks to help keep my anxiety at bay.” (Received via email, Feb 2020.)

“I’ve had autoimmune disease, allergies, anxiety and digestion issues for 4 years. After having a severe panic attack at work, I saw a doctor and a naturopath, and have tried allopathic and natural medicines as well as dietary changes. I was skeptical, but after reading the extensive research and about the therapeutic effects of helminths, I tried it for myself and it worked. After being on HDC for 1 month (10 fresh HDCs every 2 weeks), my allergies disappeared and I had no side effects. Other symptoms improved 70%. It was a huge relief for me, dramatically reducing my anxiety and making a significant difference to my gut health and digestion in the first 3 months. This is faster and more effective than anything else I have ever tried. My family were skeptical and assumed it would be unsafe, but even they could notice the difference!” (Received via email, Feb 2020.)

“I’m micro-dosing with (TSO). I notice that my anxiety peeks up for several days when it’s time to take them again. And an hour after taking them, I feel this calmness that’s difficult to describe. For someone with chronic anxiety it’s lovely.” [53]

“My daughter's anxiety was much reduced (by TSO). She has inflammation related autism. When she was anxious she would go into obsessions for hours, so the effect was pretty obvious.” [54]

"The two things that really helped with my anxiety and depression were magnesium and hookworms. The mg got me out of the black depths where I was hardly functional, and the hookworms improved my symptoms several notches beyond just functional." [55]

"It was quite fast. For example the first day of TSO, it was regulating my anxiety & insomnia." [56]

"I haven’t experienced any anxiety symptoms since starting in 2018 (six years ago). I usually dose 3 x 25 NA each year. Coeliac with UC in remission. [57]

"I have digestive issues and most likely MCAS. The NA worms actually make me happy. My reaction after the first dose was an overwhelming sense of euphoria and joy. No anxiety as a side effect with me." [58]

Also see this paper. (See Table 1 in particular.)

Practices and outcomes of self-treatment with helminths based on physicians' observations (PDF)

Temporarily increased anxiety[edit | edit source]

There have been a few reports of anxiety increasing following initial inoculation with NA, TTO or HDC, but this increase is usually temporary and often related to dose size.

I think it aggravated the anxiety component for me. Not sure why. (After dosing with HDC)

Around day 15 (after an initial dose of 10 NA), I had severe anxiety for 2 days straight but nothing since. [59]

I had mild/moderate diffuse anxiety for about a week at ~19-20 weeks. (After a supplementary dose of 65 NA!)

My anxiety and more-so paranoia seems to have increased significantly after hosting. Its a strange feeling but I "feel" like its the worms interacting with me somehow.

I had a major increase in anxiety when I started whipworm (TT). But with hookworm my anxiety has improved greatly. I terminated the whipworm after 6 or 8 weeks when my reaction to them still hadn't eased, so I can't say if that feeling would have persisted or eventually passed.

I am very thankful that I only had 3 NA For my first dose. I am almost done with the week five, and the anxiety I am feeling is truly challenging me. [60]

If anxiety does arise, or worsen, after introducing helminths, this should eventually resolve along with any other symptoms that appear during the initial side effect period. Resolution is usually complete by the end of the 14th week and, if it recurs at all following supplementary inoculations, it typically becomes gradually less troublesome over time.

I have severe anxiety, including PTSD & panic attacks etc. When I initially began treating (with NA) I would notice an increase in anxiety for several days. It would be a bit uncomfortable & high doses of D3, Benadryl, & magnesium would help. I’m honestly not sure when it stopped. Likely when the bounce stopped, so a year in? Now, the opposite occurs and I get very calm & fall asleep after treating. This usually lasts for several days. [61]

In a few rare cases, anxiety can persist for a longer period of time, leading one individual to terminate their colony.

Increase in energy and exuberance the first month, restlessness the second month, worsening anxiety/OCD third and 4th month, increased to day-long panic attacks fifth month. Directly due to hookworms as symptoms are 90% improved after 3 days of albendazole.

Combining helminth species to treat anxiety and depression[edit | edit source]

Some individuals have found that a combination of helminth species has given them the best longterm effects.

For me, TSO plus NA is the magic combo for anxiety and depression. [62]

Autism[edit | edit source]

See Helminthic therapy and autism

Schizophrenia[edit | edit source]

Has not been hospitalized in 9 months. Has dropped medications 50%. Looks better, bright eyes. Energy. Hopefulness. Pleasure in life. (After one year of treating with NA.)[63]

Bipolar disorder[edit | edit source]

HDC has been found to help in several cases of bipolar disorder.

(Before treatment), in my 30’s, I was diagnosed with depression and anxiety. In my 50’s, I was diagnosed as bipolar. Since the beginning of self-treatment (with HDC), my symptoms have subsided. My wellbeing has improved 100%. [66]

(After treatment, I have) less anxiety and am able to think clearer. The helminths (HDC) seemed to help in areas that were positive but unexpected. [67]

When I get angry I used to (before helminth therapy) have thoughts of killing the person that made me angry or maybe just hurting them severely, but now (after therapy with HDC) I am not angry often, or depressed. [68]

And there are further reports of success with this disorder in the following paper.

Overcoming Evolutionary Mismatch by Self-Treatment with Helminths: Current Practices and Experience (PDF)

Psychosis[edit | edit source]

There are several lines of evidence to suggest that a proportion of psychotic illnesses have a plausible autoimmune component.[69],[70]

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)[edit | edit source]

2014 Searching for the immune basis of obsessive-compulsive disorder -- Full text | PDF

2001 Nov 13 Is obsessive–compulsive disorder an autoimmune disease? -- Full text | PDF

Tourette Syndrome[edit | edit source]

The findings of several studies collectively indicate that inflammation plays a significant and crucial role in the development and progression of Tourette's syndrome. [71] [72] [73] Researchers have also discussed the potential contribution of immunological dysfunction as well as inflammatory processes in TS [74] and the following study found that autoimmune disease in the mother was associated with a 29% increased incidence rate of Tourette’s syndrome in male offspring, suggesting that neuroimmunological disorders may act as a component in the etiology of a subset of TS.

Maternal History of Autoimmune Disease and Later Development of Tourette Syndrome in Offspring

Alternative approaches to treatment[edit | edit source]

Omega-3 fatty acids and uridine for depression[edit | edit source]

According to Wikipedia, Harvard researchers have reported that omega-3 fatty acids and uridine, two substances in foods such as fish, walnuts, molasses and sugar beets, prevented depression in rats as effectively as antidepressant drugs. William Carlezon, director of McLean’s Behavioral Genetics Laboratory, commented:

Giving rats a combination of uridine and omega-3 fatty acids produced immediate effects that were indistinguishable from those caused by giving the rats standard antidepressant medications. [75] [76]

Some helminth species produce uridine amongst their excretory/secretory products, for example, N. brasiliensis.

2025 May 5 Protective effects of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis- derived uridine via the apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter in a mouse model of TNBS-induced inflammatory bowel disease -- Full text | PDF

Unfortunately, none of the four therapeutic helminths are known to produce uridine.