Helminthic therapy and infectious diseases

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There are many different helminth species, belonging to different phyla. Since these may use different mechanisms from each other, the effects of one species can not be generalized to others.

Helminthic therapy and susceptibility to infectious diseases

People enquiring about helminthic therapy are often concerned that the treatment might reduce their ability to fight common infections, but the effect that helminths have on the immune system is complex and not simply a matter of reducing an excessive response. What helminths do is more a case of subtle modulation, i.e., balancing or quieting rather than suppression, of immunity, and they achieve this by deploying an orchestra of molecules with the intension of keeping themselves and their host alive and well for as long as possible. See The effects of helminths on the immune system.

Some investigators worry that helminths could weaken patients' immune systems and leave them more vulnerable to some types of infectious diseases, even under careful medical supervision. But as long as society maintains its current modern hygienic standards, I consider this risk negligible. Given the lack of side effects from helminth therapy, morbidity from immune-mediated diseases, and the toxicities of modern therapies for them, almost certainly exceed the risk from helminthic exposure. [1]

In fact, we can be rather confident in the ability of helminths to modulate the immune system without immunocompromising the host, [2] a view supported by William Parker, whose team at Duke University found enhanced rather than suppressed immune function in animals with increased biodiversity.

• Worms, germs lead to better immune function
• Increased biodiversity in the environment improves the humoral response of rats

Parker says that, far from making the immune system lazy or less effective, helminths actually make it smarter.

People who host helminths can still mount an inflammatory attack on pathogens, but they don't set off self-destructive immune bombs against harmless substances or their own cells.

There is also evidence from elsewhere that intestinal parasites may help the body ward off some infections.

• Epidemiological study of the association between malaria and helminth infections in Nigeria -- Full text | PDF (Children with helminths may be less likely to develop malaria.)
• Dueling Infections: One Keeps the Other at Bay
• Antagonism between two intestinal parasites in humans: the importance of co-infection for infection risk and recovery dynamics
• Intestinal worms boost immune system in a surprising way This study found that helminths had stimulated the production of more lymph nodes, which may be what was experienced by the self-treater who posted the following comment online.

After a year or two of starting the therapy, I suddenly noticed that lymph nodes in the neck around my jaw were constantly slightly swollen. This was a new phenomenon for me and HT was the only variable I could point to. I don’t ever remember having reactive lymph nodes to viral or bacterial exposure at any point in my life, but after HT, I now notice it when I have a cold or flu. I got extensive blood work and chest x-ray etc. to rule out any nefarious reasons for the lymphadenopathy, so the only thing I can point to is just a new immune response to my environment. Other than the slight annoyance, it doesn’t seem to cause any problems, and it has seemingly calmed down over time. [3]

The experience of helminth self-treaters

There are reports of both less, and more, infections while hosting worms, but the majority of self-treaters appear to experience a reduced incidence of infection.

I have noticed that since taking on NA (five years now), my winter colds have dramatically shortened. That is, the symptoms (drainage, night coughing) that used to go on for a week now disappear along with the virus -- about two days. [4]

Don't think I've caught a single cold since my infection with hookworm a couple of years ago. [5]

My immunity seems better with HW. I have an immune deficiency that makes me more susceptible to upper respiratory infections. Since starting HW I have successfully fought of infection which is VERY unusual for me. My husband had a cold. Normally that is a disaster for me as a cold in someone else almost always leads to chest infection and bronchitis in me. For the first time in more years than I remember I sniffled for a day and fought it off. (Edited from two posts.) [6] [7]

Anecdotally, I haven't had a single cold or flu since inoculation last March.

It will be 2 years (next month) with helminths... I have not had flu or a cold for the last 2 winters even though whole family had severe chest and throat infections. Prior to the worms I would get flu every winter. First holiday last August to Kenya where I did not get ill. [8]

Have been hosting for over 3 years as a reservoir donor. No colds in this time.

I have the flu. I know because my son just tested positive with the nasal swab test. My immune response has been very different from years past, I've always coughed like crazy which ended up as bronchitis, and I've spiked a fever. But this time I have very little coughing and only a low grade fever. 24 hrs later and I'm almost completely over it. I attribute this to having hosted human hookworms for the past nine months. My body is better at handling infection now. [9]

I used to have a cold every 6-8 weeks. My whole life. Since getting NA almost 2 years ago I've only been ill once. [10]

I don't get sinus infections that last for six months any more. I don't get colds that turn into sinus infections. [11]

I just realized that for the first time in my entire life I haven’t (except for 1 day) taken antibiotics in over 2 years. I’ve also successfully been able to fight off multiple illnesses with my buddies. Including sinus infections & UTIs. Coming from someone that was on antibiotics multiple times a year, since early childhood, that’s incredible. [12]

In some cases, the normalisation of immune function by helminths can result in people who previously rarely got infections beginning to get them more frequently.

I got my first cold in years 6 weeks after my first inoculation. (Link expired)

Since I inoculated over 3 years ago, I get sick way way more often. I have Crohn's disease and before my worms I was almost never sick and I was usually the lone person in my house who stayed "healthy" while illnesses ran through everyone else. One of the theories about crohns being due to an overactive immune system seems to be true for me. The worms have dramatically reduced my crohns symptoms but in exchange I catch just about any illness my young kids bring home from school. It's completely worth it, though, as colds, flus, strep, etc on occasion are nothing compared to the pain of crohns! [13]

Prior to HT I didn't get many colds. Now I get colds and flu bugs more often. I think when my immune system was over reactive it killed everything quickly, including attacking my gut. Now that it's less active and colds and flus take hold more often. [14]

Since inoculating less than six months ago I've had my first sinus infection in 43 years, my first lung infection and my first skin infection. None were too serious - but it seems unlikely to be a coincidence. I've always been the person you couldn't give a bacterial infection to if you tried. Having said that, two pesky warts I've had for over a decade have disappeared. I'd say something is shifting! I should point out that I'll take some mild bacterial infections over 4 autoimmune diseases any day. [15]

I never had flu or cold for the last 20 years or what I can remember. Not even once a sneeze or running nose. But after the helminth therapy, I have a flu or cold episode at least twice a year. [16]

(In the 6 months since first inoculating with NA) I’ve had at least 2 nasty bouts of colds/flu - both Covid negative - which I don't normally get. [17]

I caught colds 6x in the first 6 months when I started the therapy with NA. (Very rare the 2 years before). [18]

The duration of colds may be reduced while hosting helminths.

I was accustomed to common cold symptoms enduring for up to two weeks -- drainage causing a nighttime cough that kept me from sleeping. After taking on my (NA) colony, I noticed that my colds only gave me symptoms for ... about 48 hours. No more cough! When my colony died off at three years, I went back to those awful, enduring symptoms. Then when I re-colonized, my next cold's symptoms disappeared in two days. [19]

How infections impact the benefits of helminthic therapy

When someone who is hosting helminths gets an infection, such as COVID, a cold or the flu, this can cause a brief return of symptoms of whatever disease they are treating.

I had a flu 10 days ago and had a return of crohn’s symptoms. [20]

… any time I get a cold/flu it exacerbates all my allergy-related symptoms by revving up my immune system (especially congestion/headaches, eczema & muscle/joint pain). [21]

I am 7½ months into hw therapy to cope with rhinitis… Last week I caught a minor cold from my kids and have had the worst allergy attack lasting all week. [22]

I have noticed that my old symptoms (systemic reaction to food) that are now much better, flare whenever I get a cold… It does appear to happen each time I get a virus so far…[23]

In one juvenile who is being treated with HDC, a candida flare was suggested as the likely cause of a loss of benefits. [24]

This return of disease symptoms does not occur because the infection has a direct effect on the worms themselves, which may continue to secrete their immune modulating molecules while the infection is active. However, since the effect of these excretory/secretory products is subtle, this may be overwhelmed by the increased activity of the immune system, resulting in the temporary reappearance of symptoms.

If any substance is taken which enhances the immune response, this may also increase the symptoms of autoimmune diseases, making it appear that the substance itself has adversely affected the worms. For example, this can occur with the use of elderberry. [25] [26] (Also see the comments here and here.)

When the immune system settles back to it’s normal level of activity after dealing with an infection and after the use of any immune enhancing substances has ceased, the impact of the worms’ subtle immune modulation will once again become evident, and disease symptoms will gradually subside.

Normal immune balance may be restored within 2-3 weeks after a cold or the flu but, in the case of the latter, it may take a while after the viral infection has been cleared, especially if a secondary bacterial infection develops in its wake.

Helminthic therapy and chronic infections

Some people with chronic infections have noticed an increase in the number and severity of outbreaks after introducing therapeutic helminths, especially those people who were already suffering frequent outbreaks prior to starting helminthic therapy. Infections such as tuberculosis (TB), Lyme disease, herpes, hepatitis, HIV and CMV, etc., may surge during the early response phase following helminth introduction, because this alters the immune reaction and may reduce the body's ability to suppress active infection. For example, some, but not all, subjects with Herpes may notice more frequent outbreaks after commencing helminthic therapy, and helminth providers may decline to supply someone with a more serous chronic and incurable infection, such as those who are HIV positive.

Anyone with an active chronic, or incurable, infection who does go ahead with helminthic therapy would be advised to consult their physician prior to treatment, and to take steps - for instance increasing prophylactic or suppression therapy - to ameliorate the immunomodulatory effect in the early stages of helminthic therapy.

See also:

• Helminthic therapy and Lyme disease

General reviews

• 2025 Apr 22 Helminth Coinfections Modulate Disease Dynamics and Vaccination Success in the Era of Emerging Infectious Diseases -- Full text | Full text | PDF
• 2023 Oct 3 The impact of helminth-induced immunity on infection with bacteria or viruses -- Full text | PDF
• 2023 Aug 10 Soil-transmitted helminths: A critical review of the impact of co-infections and implications for control and elimination -- Full text | PDF
• 2020 Nov 23 Impact of Helminth Infections on Female Reproductive Health and Associated Diseases -- Full text | PDF
• 2018 Nov 8 The Influence of Parasite Infections on Host Immunity to Co-infection With Other Pathogens -- Full text | PDF
• 2018 Oct 16 Helminth Infections Induce Tissue Tolerance Mitigating Immunopathology but Enhancing Microbial Pathogen Susceptibility -- Full text | PDF
• 2018 Sep Helminth-Bacterial Interactions: Cause and Consequence -- Full text
• 2010 Feb 3 Immunity against Helminths: Interactions with the Host and the Intercurrent Infections -- Full text
• 2007 Jun Chronic helminth infections may negatively influence immunity against tuberculosis and other diseases of public health importance

See also

• 2025 Jul ILC2 Diversity, Location, and Function in Pulmonary Disease -- Full text | PDF

Helminthic therapy and viral infections

The precise interactions that occur between helminths and viruses are still poorly understood, but it is known that some latent viral infections, such as herpes, can be reactivated temporarily following infection with a parasite such as the one that causes malaria.

One study has revealed how signals from the immune system that help repel a common parasite can inadvertently cause the reactivation of a dormant herpes virus. [27]

However, the temporary reactivation of dormant viral infections does not happen in all cases and there may even be a reduction in viral activity following inoculation, with amelioration of pathology without any increase in susceptibility to, or persistence of, the viral infection. [28] [29] [30]

The rate of progression of HIV disease is no different in populations living in helminth endemic parts of the world compared with the western world, where helminth infections are now almost non-existent. By balancing interactions between inflammatory and regulatory responses, helminths may produce an effect that is at least neutral, and perhaps even protective, for example by reducing the progression of HIV. [31]

Helminths have a protective effect against pulmonary viral infections (VRS, COVID-19, Influenza):

• 2025 Jul 15 Helminth infection induces innate immune priming in plasmacytoid dendritic cells -- Full text

Helminthic therapy and herpes

As with other viral infections, herpes may be worsened or reactivated temporarily following the introduction of helminths. [32]

I get cold sores and noticed a small increase shortly after inoculation. [33]

My daughter has herpes. The virus gets activated everytime we inoculate, but only then. We have not seen any increase in activation frequency outside of inoculations (rather the opposite if anything). [34]

Any exacerbation following inoculation should only last up to approximately 6 months, and any doses added while the herpes flare is still active may cause an increase in symptoms, especially within the first 3 or 4 months, i.e., before the first cohort of worms is able to fully exert its suppressive effect on the immune response to itself.

Helminthic therapy should bring about a reduction in outbreaks of herpes once the worms have been hosted for a few months.

I used to get cold sores throughout my adult life frequently and easily ~ the slightest trigger of sunburn, stress, colds, etc. would cause them to appear. Sometimes one would be just healing when another would start. Such a drag! Since HT the incidence of coldsores/HSV outbreaks has drastically dropped to almost none. My HSV1 only appeared once in 3.5 years after a brutal sunburn. (Edited from three posts: [35] [36] [37])

The following year, I have had far less frequent cold sores than I have ever had in my life which i attribute to increased overall health due to the helminths. [38]

Since inoculating, I have not had any cold sores… I'd say my immune system is working well that way! [39]

My cold sores have reduced since taking HWs over a period of 1.5 years. [40]

Occasionally, herpes may improve in the first few weeks following inoculation.

I'm three weeks in and I haven't had a single cold sore which is really rare for me. [41] Week 6 update… I still have not had another cold sore. This is considering I used to get them once to twice a week!! [42]

Supplementary doses may cause a temporary flare of herpes, especially following overly large doses.

I get cold sores and they do get worse (after inoculation) but antivirals pretty much fix it. Plus no outbreak is as bad as when you first get cold sores. [43]

There is also a possibility of a large hookworm dose - even a supplementary one - triggering shingles.

I can't prove this but my shingles began following this bad reaction to 25 hookworms. [44]

Herpes appears to be treatable using high doses of vitamin C, a course of which could be taken prior to, or concurrent with helminthic therapy. [45] [46] (PDF)

Necator Americanus induces IFN-gamma production [47]. "IFNG has a significant anti-viral effect in herpes simplex virus I (HSV) infection. IFNG compromises the microtubules that HSV relies upon for transport into an infected cell's nucleus, inhibiting the ability of HSV to replicate. Studies in mice on acyclovir resistant herpes have shown that IFNG treatment can significantly reduce herpes viral load. The mechanism by which IFNG inhibits herpes reproduction is independent of T-cells, which means that IFNG may be an effective treatment in individuals with low T-cells." (Wikipedia

See also

• 2025 Aug 8 Exploring Gene Expression Changes in Murine Female Genital Tract Tissues Following Single and Co-Infection with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis and Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 -- Full text | PDF
• 2025 Jul 24 Characterization of microRNA Expression Profiles of Murine Female Genital Tracts Following Nippostrongylus brasiliensis and Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Co-Infection
• 2024 Dec 4 Herpes simplex virus type 2 in sub-Saharan Africa and the potential impact of helminth immune modulation -- Full text | PDF
• 2021 Apr 14 Il4ra-independent vaginal eosinophil accumulation following helminth infection exacerbates epithelial ulcerative pathology of HSV-2 infection -- Full text | PDF
• 2018 Oct 30 Helminth-induced IL-4 expands bystander memory CD8+ T cells for early control of viral infection -- Full text | PDF

Helminthic therapy and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)

As with other viruses, an existing infection with the Epstein-Barr virus (human herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4)) may theoretically be temporarily worsened or reactivated following an initial inoculation with helminths, or after a large supplementary dose. However, one study found that therapeutic inoculation with NA was not associated with EBV reactivation. [48]

There is no evidence to suggest that helminths might kill the EB virus, but, due to them being effective against inflammation, allergy and autoimmune disease, helminths might help those with EBV by protecting them from the ravages of the inflammation that this infection is known to cause. Helminths might also turn off allergy to EBV and prevent the development of autoimmune diseases which develop more frequently in those infected by this virus. And, since there is evidence that helminths may prevent the development of cancer (see Helminthic therapy and cancer), it is possible they might offer a degree of protection against cancers developing as a sequela of EBV infection.

There is anecdotal evidence that hosting helminths can improve a person's health in spite of them having an EBV infection.

My health turned to crap after EBV in college, turned into lupus-like symptoms and food intolerances, extreme fatigue and depression. 6 month on HW helped immensely and now I am doing very good on HW and L. Reuteri.” (Link expired)

Someone else was able to reap numerous health benefits from hosting hookworms, in spite of having a long-term EBV infection.

• The Amazing Dr Wriggly

List of scientific papers

• 2025 Nov Metabolic state of tissue resident macrophages is altered by preexisting helminth infection
• 2023 Oct 17 Preexisting helminth challenge exacerbates infection and reactivation of gammaherpesvirus in tissue resident macrophages -- Full text | PDF
• 2021 Mar 25 Th2 Cytokine Modulates Herpesvirus Reactivation in a Cell Type Specific Manner -- Full text | PDF
• 2020 Aug 28 An Absence of Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation and Associations with Disease Activity in People with Multiple Sclerosis Undergoing Therapeutic Hookworm Vaccination -- Full text | PDF
• 2014 Aug 1 Helminth infection reactivates latent γ-herpesvirus via cytokine competition at a viral promoter -- Full text | PDF

Helminthic Therapy and COVID-19

See the separate page dedicated to this disease:

• Helminthic therapy and COVID-19

Helminths and influenza

• 2025 Nov Maternal infection and altered fetal immune programming

• 2025 Nov Maternal helminth infection promotes offspring long-term antiviral immunity via microbiota (Also see this interview: 2025 Sep 29 A Small Worm Offers Big Clues About the Human Immune System)

• 2025 Jul 15 Helminth infection induces innate immune priming in plasmacytoid dendritic cells -- Full text

Our findings may partly explain the mechanism of the antiviral protection previously reported in acute helminth infections

• 2023 May Enteric helminth infection confers protection against lethal respiratory influenza virus infection

• 2021 Sep Interleukin-4 protects mice against lethal influenza and Streptococcus pneumoniae co-infected pneumonia -- Full text | PDF

• 2019 Nov 19 Helminth Infections Suppress the Efficacy of Vaccination against Seasonal Influenza -- Full text -- Full text | PDF

• 2014 Nov 14 S. mansoni bolsters anti-viral immunity in the murine respiratory tract -- Full text | PDF

• 2009 Jan Review series on helminths, immune modulation and the hygiene hypothesis: immunity against helminths and immunological phenomena in modern human populations: coevolutionary legacies? -- Full text | PDF

• 2006 Mar Amelioration of influenza-induced pathology in mice by coinfection with Trichinella spiralis -- Full text | [49]

see also :

• 2025 Jul ILC2 Diversity, Location, and Function in Pulmonary Disease -- Full text | PDF (see 11. Pulmonary ILC2 in Response to Respiratory Viral Infection)

In sum, ILC2 are important in restoring lung barrier integrity in the context of both prototypical type‐1 (viral) and type‐2 (helminth) pathogens by limiting prolonged and detrimental lung inflammation.

• 2024 Aug ILC2-derived LIF licences progress from tissue to systemic immunity -- Full text | [50] (Nature)

• 2022 Jan 14 BATF promotes group 2 innate lymphoid cell-mediated lung tissue protection during acute respiratory virus infection -- Full text | Full text

• 2015 Aug 27 A Distinct Function of Regulatory T Cells in Tissue Protection -- Full text | PDF

• 2013 Sep Group 2 innate lymphoid cell production of IL-5 is regulated by NKT cells during influenza virus infection – Full text | PDF

• 2011 Nov Innate lymphoid cells promote lung-tissue homeostasis after infection with influenza virus -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)

• 2025 Nov Maternal helminth infection promotes offspring long-term antiviral immunity via microbiota (Also see this interview: 2025 Sep 29 A Small Worm Offers Big Clues About the Human Immune System)

We saw that the exposed offspring were protected against both RSV and influenza. Specifically, we found that this helminth infection in the mother transforms the epithelial cells that line the baby’s lungs. These cells protect against viruses by producing a powerful antiviral protein that we didn’t see in our control group.

• 2025 Jul 15 Helminth infection induces innate immune priming in plasmacytoid dendritic cells -- Full text

Our findings may partly explain the mechanism of the antiviral protection previously reported in acute helminth infections

• 2024 Aug Helminth induced monocytosis conveys protection from respiratory syncytial virus infection in mice -- Full text

• 2024 Heligmosomoides polygyrus-induced serum factors limit respiratory syncytial virus titres; a potential role for CCL8 -- PDF (Master of science)

• 2017 Oct Enteric helminth-induced type I interferon signaling protects against pulmonary virus infection through interaction with the microbiota -- Full text | PDF

These data demonstrate that a strictly enteric helminth infection can have remote protective antiviral effects in the lung through induction of a microbiota-dependent type I interferon response.

• 2014 Nov 14 S. mansoni bolsters anti-viral immunity in the murine respiratory tract -- Full text | PDF

See also

• 2025 Jul ILC2 Diversity, Location, and Function in Pulmonary Disease -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and adenovirus

• 2025 Nov A helminth secretory product enhances enteric adenovirus infection independent of tuft cells and type 2 immunity

Helminths and astrovirus

• 2021 May Murine astrovirus tropism for goblet cells and enterocytes facilitates an IFN-λ response in vivo and in enteroid cultures -- Full text

Helminths and flaviviruses

West Nile virus, Zika virus, and Powassan virus

• 2021 Jul Intestinal tête-à-tête: helminths blunt immunity against flaviviruses -- Full text | PDF

• 2021 Mar 4 Enteric helminth coinfection enhances host susceptibility to neurotropic flaviviruses via a tuft cell-IL-4 receptor signaling axis -- Full text | PDF (see also comment Worm holes in immunity

Helminths and chikungunya virus (CHIKV)

There is relationships between chikungunya virus exposure with long-lasting rheumatic musculoskeletal pain and chronic fatigue.

Helminthic therapy could be an interesting avenue to explore. A distinction must be made between a study of the effects on acute co-infection and the effect on secondary symptoms.

Helminths and norovirus

• 2014 Aug 1 Virus-helminth co-infection reveals a microbiota-independent mechanism of immuno-modulation -- Full text (Science)

See also (not directly related)

• 2019 Oct IFN-I and IL-22 mediate protective effects of intestinal viral infection -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and rhinovirus

See also

• 2017 Feb IFN-γ Blocks Development of an Asthma Phenotype in Rhinovirus-Infected Baby Mice by Inhibiting Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells -- Full text | [51]
• 2014 Aug Neonatal rhinovirus induces mucous metaplasia and airways hyperresponsiveness through IL-25 and type 2 innate lymphoid cells -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and papillomavirus

• 2025 Aug 5 Understanding the association between immune modulating helminths and human papillomavirus or cervical cancer: a scoping review (preprint)

• 2024 Jan Regulation of HPV infection and cervical cancer development following a helminth infection -- PDF (thesis)

Together, these findings show that helminth infection can protect against distal viral infection and suppress the growth and cancer cell behaviour of HPV associated cervical cancer

• 2022 Oct 18 Hookworm infection associates with a vaginal Type 1/Type 2 immune signature and increased HPV load -- Full text | PDF

• 2021 Jul 19 Gut Helminth Infection-Induced Immunotolerance and Consequences for Human Papillomavirus Persistence -- Full text | PDF

• 2018 Aug 1 Hookworm exposure decreases human papillomavirus uptake and cervical cancer cell migration through systemic regulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition marker expression -- Full text | PDF

• 2018 Aug Cancer cell behaviour following parasite exposure -- PDF (Master thesis)

• 2016 Mar 1 Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections Are Associated With an Increase in Human Papillomavirus Prevalence and a T-Helper Type 2 Cytokine Signature in Cervical Fluids -- Full text | PDF

See also Papillomavirus induced cervical cancer

Helminths and HIV

• 2025 Sep 8 Gut virome remodeling in HIV–helminth co-infection reflects colorectal cancer–associated signatures in a South African cohort also Virome restructuring in HIV-helminth co-infection reveals potential biomarkers for colorectal cancer in a South African cohort

• 2025 Mar 20 HIV-Helminth Co-Infections and Immune Checkpoints: Implications for Cancer Risk in South Africa -- Full text | PDF

• 2025 Vimentin Methylation as a Potential Screening Biomarker for Colorectal Cancer in HIV-Helminth Co-Infected Individuals

• 2023 Jan-Fev Immunological interaction during helminth and HIV co-infection: Integrative research needs for sub-Saharan Africa

• 2019 Sept 5 Schistosoma mansoni soluble egg antigen (SEA) and recombinant Omega-1 modulate induced CD4+ T-lymphocyte responses and HIV-1 infection in vitro -- Full text | PDF (Also reported by Healio. [52])

• 2018 Oct 17 Effect of schistosomiasis on the outcome of patients infected with HIV-1 starting antiretroviral therapy in rural Tanzania -- Full text |PDF

• 2017 May 25 Hookworm infection is associated with decreased CD4+ T cell counts in HIV-infected adult Ugandans -- Full text | PDF

• 2014 Nov HIV/AIDS and helminth infections-a neglected therapeutic potential

• 2013 Oct HIV and helminths: time for a new direction -- Full text

• 2012 Jul 1 The effect of anthelmintic treatment during pregnancy on HIV plasma viral load: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Uganda -- Full text

• 2012 Jul 1 Effect of schistosomiasis on the outcome of patients infected with HIV-1 starting antiretroviral therapy in rural Tanzania -- Full text | PDF

• 2010 Mar 30 Prevalence and correlates of helminth co-infection in Kenyan HIV-1 infected adults -- Full text | PDF

• 2009 Jun HIV-1 and intestinal helminth review update: updating a Cochrane Review and building the case for treatment and has the time come to test and treat?

• 2008 Aug 20 Albendazole treatment of HIV-1 and helminth co-infection: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial -- Full text | PDF (comments 2009 Jan 14 Which helminth coinfections really affect HIV disease progression?)

See also HIV-Helminth co-infections and cancer risk

Other studies

• 2025 Sep 12 Protective or pathogenic? Tuft cells shape divergent immune outcomes in helminth and viral infections

• 2025 Aug 11 Helminth infections affect host immune responses to viral infections and vaccines -- Full text

• 2025 Jul 15 Helminth infection induces innate immune priming in plasmacytoid dendritic cells -- Full text

• 2025 Patients with Trichinella spiralis infection display unmodified antigen-specific immune response to SARS-CoV-2

Trichinella spiralis infection does not disrupt the host’s humoral or cellular immune response to SARS-CoV-2, suggesting that the use of Trichinella antigens for the treatment of chronic inflammatory disorders, which is promising, will not affect the host’s ability to respond to future viral challenges.

• 2023 May 24 Infection with soil-transmitted helminths and their impact on coinfections -- Full text | PDF

• 2023 May Parasitic worms affect virus coinfection: a mechanistic overview -- Full text.

Studies using mouse models of helminth–virus coinfections have revealed important immune mechanisms induced by helminths, which are either responsible for the exacerbation of viral disease or contribute to ameliorate the control of viral infection and pathology.

• 2021 Aug 24 Helminth–virus interactions: determinants of coinfection outcomes -- Full text

• 1993 Feb 1 Helminth infection results in decreased virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell and Th1 cytokine responses as well as delayed virus clearance -- Full text

Helminthic therapy and bacterial infections

Helminthic therapy and Clostridium difficile

Helminths may have a positive impact on C. difficile infection.

I had several patients who reported about vanishing symptoms from C.diff after starting with TSO. We know that helminths alter the microbiome and it would not surprise me if this alteration also effects the C. diff burden. [53]

The type-2 immune response that is most often associated with helminth infections, allergy and asthma, may be protective during C. difficile infection :

• The Inflammasome and Type-2 Immunity in Clostridium difficile Infection

Recent work has begun to show that a type-2 immune response, most often associated with helminth infections, allergy, and asthma, may be protective during C. difficile infection.

Helminths and Helicobacter pylori

• 2025 Aug 19 Co-Infection Dynamics of Helicobacter pylori and Helminths: A Double-Edged Sword -- Full text | PDF

• 2022 Dec 9 The impact of Helicobacter pylori and intestinal helminth infections on gastric adenocarcinoma and inflammatory bowel disease in Sub-Saharan Africa -- Full text | PDF

• 2020 Apr Dual infective burden of Helicobacter pylori and intestinal parasites: Good or bad news for the host? -- Full text

• 2020 May 20 Changes in the Severity of Gastric Mucosal Inflammation Associated With Helicobacter Pylori in Humans Coinfected With Intestinal Helminths -- Full text

• 2017 Frequency and immunological consequences of Helicobacter pylori and intestinal parasite co-infections: a brief review -- PDF

• 2014 Apr Helminth co-infection in Helicobacter pylori infected INS-GAS mice attenuates gastric premalignant lesions of epithelial dysplasia and glandular atrophy and preserves colonization resistance of the stomach to lower bowel microbiota -- Full text | PDF

• 2011 Oct Effects of Helicobacter pylori, geohelminth infection and selected commensal bacteria on the risk of allergic disease and sensitization in 3-year-old Ethiopian children

we found evidence to support the hypothesis of a protective effect of H. pylori infection on the risk of allergic disease

• 2007 Mar Helicobacter pylori and intestinal parasites are not detrimental to the nutritional status of Amerindians -- Full text (PDF)

• 2006 Jan Helicobacter pylori and Schistosoma japonicum co-infection in a Chinese population: helminth infection alters humoral responses to H. pylori and serum pepsinogen I/II ratio -- Full text

• 2005 Jun Intestinal helminthiasis in Colombian children promotes a Th2 response to Helicobacter pylori: possible implications for gastric carcinogenesis

• 2000 May Concurrent enteric helminth infection modulates inflammation and gastric immune responses and reduces helicobacter-induced gastric atrophy -- Full text (comment 2001 Jul The African enigma: the parasite's perspective, in reply to The 'African enigma' – another explanation)

• 2000 Apr Intestinal helminth infection modulates inflammation and reduces gastric atrophy in a mouse model of Helicobacter infection -- PDF

See also:

• Helminthic therapy and Gastric cancer

• 2023 Jun 27 Helicobacter spp. are prevalent in wild mice and protect from lethal Citrobacter rodentium infection in the absence of adaptive immunity -- Full text
• 2017 Feb From inflammation to gastric cancer: Role of Helicobacter pylori -- Full text | PDF
• 2012 May 9 Diabetes, insulin use and Helicobacter pylori eradication: a retrospective cohort study -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and lyme

See Helminthic therapy and Lyme disease

Helminths and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

• 2019 Oct 31 Intestinal helminth infection enhances bacteria-induced recruitment of neutrophils to the airspace -- Full text | PDF

In summary, our observations suggest that a pre-existing parasitic gut infection enhances infiltration of neutrophils into the airspace in the early stages of P. aeruginosa airway infection and promotes the survival of the co-infected host, likely through helminth-orchestrated systemic Th2 immunity

Helminths and Streptococcus pneumoniae

• 2021 Sep Interleukin-4 protects mice against lethal influenza and Streptococcus pneumoniae co-infected pneumonia -- Full text | PDF
• 2021 Mar 26 Intestinal helminth co-infection is an unrecognised risk factor for increased pneumococcal carriage density and invasive disease -- Full text | PDF
• 2019 Sept The impact of soil-transmitted helminth and respiratory viral infections on Streptococcus pneumoniae nasopharyngeal carriage -- PDF (Thesis)
• 2014 Oct Helminth infections predispose mice to pneumococcal pneumonia but not to other pneumonic pathogens
• 2014 Sep 22 Chronic helminth infections impair pneumococcal vaccine responses

Helminths and tuberculosis (TB)

Certain helminths may enhance TB infection, whether newly acquired or reactivated [54] and some helminth species may reduce the effect of any anti-TB therapy. [55]

In order to combat TB, a certain degree of immune vigilance is required, but a hyper-vigilant immune system will increase the risk of autoimmune disease. The effects of helminthic therapy in TB must be seen in relation to this dynamic.

Below are several further examples of the research into the interactions between helminths and TB. As can be seen, three of these papers addressed the effects of specific helminths that are not used in helminthic therapy. These include Schistosoma mansoni, a blood fluke, the eggs of which penetrate body cavities such as the lungs where, unlike the therapeutic helminths, they actually cause inflammation and promote reinfection and relapse in TB.

• 2024 Jan 5 Comparison of Cytokines Profiles and Monocyte Response Among Tuberculosis Patients Versus Patients Coinfected With Intestinal Helminth and Tuberculosis -- Full text | PDF

• 2023 Jun 29 No impact of helminth coinfection in patients with smear positive tuberculosis on immunoglobulin levels using a novel method measuring Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific antibodies -- Full text | PDF

• 2023 Mar 20 Immunomodulation resulting of helminth infection could be an opportunity for immunization against tuberculosis and mucosal pathogens -- Full text | PDF

• 2023 Feb 8 IL-4 and helminth infection downregulate MINCLE-dependent macrophage response to mycobacteria and Th17 adjuvanticity -- Full text | PDF

• 2021 Sep Effect of Helicobacter pylori and Helminth Coinfection on the Immune Response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis

• 2021 Mar 2 Helminth species specific expansion and increased TNF-alpha production of non-classical monocytes during active tuberculosis -- Full text | PDF

• 2019 Mar 1 Coexistent Helminth Infection-Mediated Modulation of Chemokine Responses in Latent Tuberculosis -- Full text | PDF

• 2018 Epidemiology of co-infections in Tuberculosis patients in Tanzania: HIV, helminth infection and respiratory pathogens (thesis)

• 2018 Dec 14 Human Hookworm Infection Enhances Mycobacterial Growth Inhibition and Associates With Reduced Risk of Tuberculosis Infection -- Full text | PDF (NA)

There is a reduced prevalence of latent TB infection among individuals hosting hookworms

• 2017 Jan 13 Intestinal helminth co-infection and associated factors among tuberculosis patients in Arba Minch, Ethiopia -- Full text | PDF

• 2017 Association between parasitic infections and tuberculin skin test results in refugees

Infection with the human whipworm, Trichuris trichiura, may also provide protection against acquiring a TB infection.

• 2017 Review: Impact of Helminth Infection on Antimycobacterial Immunity - A Focus on the Macrophage -- Full text | PDF

It is now evident that helminth infestations can influence the host response to MTB at multiple levels, from the initial encounter between macrophage and bacilli, to the type of adaptive T cell immunity, and to the development of immunopathology. At the same time, many open questions remain to be answered, both at the clinical–epidemiological level (e.g., regarding the benefit of anthelmintic treatment) and at the fundamental level of immune regulation during coinfection.

• 2016 Helminth-Tuberculosis Co-Infection: an Immunologic Perspective -- Full text | PDF

It is clear that there is great degree of interaction in the initiation and maintenance of host immune responses to concomitant or co-existing helminth infections and TB. Whether this antigen-specific crosstalk actually alters clinical outcomes remains an important question.

• 2015 Dec Hookworm infection among patients with pulmonary tuberculosis: Impact of co-infection on the therapeutic failure of pulmonary tuberculosis -- Full text

• 2015 Aug 6 Asymptomatic Helminth Infection in Active Tuberculosis Is Associated with Increased Regulatory and Th-2 Responses and a Lower Sputum Smear Positivity -- Full text | PDF

• 2015 Helminth-induced arginase-1 exacerbates lung inflammation and disease severity in tuberculosis -- Full text | PDF (Schistosoma mansoni)

• 2014 Coincident helminth infection modulates systemic inflammation and immune activation in active pulmonary tuberculosis -- Full text | PDF (Strongyloides stercoralis)

• 2012 Aug 29 The Impact of Asymptomatic Helminth Co-Infection in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Tuberculosis in North-West Ethiopia -- Full text | PDF

• 2011 Oct From host immunity to pathogen invasion: the effects of helminth coinfection on the dynamics of microparasites

• 2011 Aug 29 Preexisting helminth infection induces inhibition of innate pulmonary anti-tuberculosis defense by engaging the IL-4 receptor pathway -- Full text | PDF

• 2005 Low dose chronic Schistosoma mansoni infection increases susceptibility to Mycobacterium bovis BCG infection in mice -- Full text | PDF (Schistosoma mansoni)

• 2001 Feb Effect of deworming on human T cell responses to mycobacterial antigens in helminth-exposed individuals before and after bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination -- Full text | PDF

• 2000 Eradication of helminthic infections may be essential for successful vaccination against HIV and tuberculosis PDF 

Helminths and Salmonella

Note: "The impaired control of Salmonella in the coinfected pigs (with Ascaris) was associated with repressed interferon gamma responses in the small intestine (...)"[56]. Necator americanus stimulates interferon gamma responses. So the impact might be different with Necator Americanus.

• 2024 Sep 25 Concurrent Ascaris infection modulates host immunity resulting in impaired control of Salmonella infection in pigs -- Full text

• 2021 Aug 14 Lectin-Mediated Bacterial Modulation by the Intestinal Nematode Ascaris suum -- Full text | PDF

• 2021 Jun Asymptomatic Carriage of Salmonella and Intestinal Parasites in Pupils in Yaounde

• 2021 Jan 20 Impaired host resistance to Salmonella during helminth co-infection is restored by anthelmintic treatment prior to bacterial challenge -- Full text | PDF

• 2019 Prevalence and coincidence of helminth and salmonella infection in a cohort of hospital patients in Cameroon -- PDF

• 2017 Mar 25 Enteric Helminths Promote Salmonella Coinfection by Altering the Intestinal Metabolome -- Full txt | PDF

• 2017 Mar 23 Macrophage origin limits functional plasticity in helminth-bacterial co-infection -- Full text | PDF

• 2014 Sep Coinfection with an intestinal helminth impairs host innate immunity against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and exacerbates intestinal inflammation in mice -- Full text | PDF

• 2023 Jun The influence of maternal Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection on immunity in offspring -- PDF (Master thesis)

• 2011 Jun 28 Schistosoma-associated Salmonella resist antibiotics via specific fimbrial attachments to the flatworm -- Full text

• 2006 Jun 30 Studies on the interaction between Salmonella enterica ser. Typhimurium and intestinal helminths in pigs -- Full text

• 2002 Mar Are intestinal helminths a risk factor for non-typhoidal Salmonella bacteraemia in adults in Africa who are seropositive for HIV? A case-control study -- Full text

Helminths and Bordetella Pertussis

• 2022 Nov 8 Gastrointestinal helminths increase Bordetella bronchiseptica shedding and host variation in supershedding -- Full text | PDF (University coverage)
• 2013 Immunomodulatory role of helminth-derived antigens and C-type lectin receptors on inflammatory mast cells -- PDF (Thesis)
• 2012 Dec 19 Generating super-shedders: co-infection increases bacterial load and egg production of a gastrointestinal helminth -- Full text
• 2011 Nov 4 Snapshot of spatio-temporal cytokine responses to single and co-infections with helminths and bacteria -- Full text
• 1999 Oct Fasciola hepatica suppresses a protective Th1 response against Bordetella pertussis -- Full text

Helminths and Escherichia coli

• 2023 Jun 15 Whipworm Infection in Mice Increases Coinfection of Enteric Pathogens but Promotes Clearance of Ascaris Larvae From the Lungs -- Full text
• 2022 Jul Trichinella spiralis infection ameliorates the severity of Citrobacter rodentium-induced experimental colitis in mice
• 2020 Jul 27 Effect of Trichinella spiralis intervention on Citrobacter rodentium-induced experimental colitis in mice (Preprint)
• 2018 Jan Helminth-induced alterations of the gut microbiota exacerbate bacterial colitis -- Full text | PDF
• 2014 Jul 10 Development of fatal intestinal inflammation in MyD88 deficient mice co-infected with helminth and bacterial enteropathogens -- Full text | PDF
• 2012 Aug 1 Helminth infection impairs autophagy-mediated killing of bacterial enteropathogens by macrophages -- Full text | PDF
• 2010 May The Impact of Helminth-Induced Immune Activation on Intestinal Barrier Function
• 2007 Oct 1 Alternatively activated macrophages in intestinal helminth infection: effects on concurrent bacterial colitis -- Full text | PDF
• 2006 Apr 12 Helminth-primed dendritic cells alter the host response to enteric bacterial infection
• 2006 Jan 1 Helminth-primed dendritic cells alter the host response to enteric bacterial infection -- Full text | PDF (Comment : 2006 Nov A new wiggle on worms
• 2005 Sep Concurrent infection with an intestinal helminth parasite impairs host resistance to enteric Citrobacter rodentium and enhances Citrobacter-induced colitis in mice -- Full text | PDF
• 1989 Jan Concurrent infection of a Patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) by Citrobacter freundii and Trichuris trichiura -- Full text

See also

• 2025 Jul 1 Citrobacter rodentium infection activates colonic lamina propria group 2 innate lymphoid cells -- Full text | PDF
• 2023 Jun 27 Helicobacter spp. are prevalent in wild mice and protect from lethal Citrobacter rodentium infection in the absence of adaptive immunity -- Full text
• 2023 The role of chemical signaling and gut mucosal immunity during Citrobacter rodentium infection (Thesis)
• 2019 Dec Interleukin 4 induces rapid mucin transport, increases mucus thickness and quality and decreases colitis and Citrobacter rodentium in contact with epithelial cells -- Full text | [57]
• 2011 Apr The pathogenicity of an enteric Citrobacter rodentium Infection is enhanced by deficiencies in the antioxidants selenium and vitamin E -- Full text | PDF
• 2008 Apr The Pathogenicity of Citrobacter rodentium (CR) Is Enhanced in Mice Fed Diets Deficient in Selenium (Se) and Vitamin E (VE)

Helminths and leprosy

• 2025 Nov 14 Serum levels of Interleukin-10, Interleukin-6, and leptin in patients with Mycobacterium leprae-Helminth Co-Infections -- Full text
• 2025 Aug 14 Estimation of Serum Vitamin D Levels and Helminthic Coinfection in Patients with Type 2 Lepra Reactions and Its Correlation with Severity of Type 2 Reactions: A Cross-Sectional Study -- Full text

Helminths and Peritonitis

• 2021 Jun 16 Helminth derived factors inhibit neutrophil extracellular trap formation and inflammation in bacterial peritonitis -- Full text | PDF
• 2011 Nov 16 Parasitic infection improves survival from septic peritonitis by enhancing mast cell responses to bacteria in mice -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and Sepsis

See Helminthic therapy and sepsis

Other Studies

• 2023 May 24 Infection with soil-transmitted helminths and their impact on coinfections -- Full text | PDF
• 2014 Nov 12 Gastrointestinal helminths may affect host susceptibility to anthrax through seasonal immune trade-offs -- Full text
• 2018 Aug 7 The Intestinal Roundworm Ascaris suum Releases Antimicrobial Factors Which Interfere With Bacterial Growth and Biofilm Formation -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and protozoa

Helminths and malaria

• 2025 Oct 10 Integrated assessment of malaria parasite load, anemia, and associated factors in patients with and without soil-transmitted helminthes coinfection in Southern Ethiopia -- Full text | PDF

• 2025 Sep 19 Asymptomatic P. falciparum Infection is Not Associated with Exposure to Soil Transmitted Helminths in Children from a Multi School-Based Study in Esse, Cameroon (preprint)

• 2025 Sep 11 Low prevalence of helminth infection in Ugandan children hospitalized with severe malaria -- Full text | PDF

• 2024 Aug 12 The impact of soil transmitted helminth on malaria clinical presentation and treatment outcome: A case control study among children in Bagamoyo district, coastal region of Tanzania -- Full text | PDF

• 2020 Oct 20 Immune Response and Microbiota Profiles during Coinfection with Plasmodium vivax and Soil-Transmitted Helminths -- Full text | PDF

• 2019 Oct 4 Cytokine profiles of Necator americanus and Plasmodium falciparum co-infected patients in rural Ghana -- Full text | PDF

• 2018 Apr Competing for blood: the ecology of parasite resource competition in human malaria-helminth co-infections -- Full text

• 2009 Jan Review series on helminths, immune modulation and the hygiene hypothesis: immunity against helminths and immunological phenomena in modern human populations: coevolutionary legacies? -- Full text | PDF

• 2000 Mar Ascaris lumbricoides infection is associated with protection from cerebral malaria -- Full text

Helminths and giardia infections

• 2019 Oct 18 Giardia duodenalis infection in the context of a community-based deworming and water, sanitation and hygiene trial in Timor-Leste -- Full text | PDF
• 2013 Aug 28 Antagonism between two intestinal parasites in humans: the importance of co-infection for infection risk and recovery dynamics -- Full text | PDF (media coverage : Dueling Infections: One Keeps the Other at Bay, Say UCSB Anthropologists)

Our results provide evidence for an antagonistic relationship between helminths and giardia, and suggest that co-infection should be considered in disease transmission models and treatment decisions

Helminths and leishmaniasis

• 2020 May 12 A Case-Control Study on the Association Between Intestinal Helminth Infections and Treatment Failure in Patients With Cutaneous Leishmaniasis -- Full text - PDF

• 2007 Jan 1 Influence of helminth infections on the clinical course of and immune response to Leishmania braziliensis cutaneous leishmaniasis

Helminths and Toxoplasma Gondii

• 2025 Advances in the mechanism underlying the interaction of Toxoplasma gondii and nematodes co-infections (Chinese)
• 2019 Jul 29 Neuronal impairment following chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection is aggravated by intestinal nematode challenge in an IFN-γ-dependent manner -- Full text | PDF
• 2004 Jul Infection with Toxoplasma gondii reduces established and developing Th2 responses induced by Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection -- Full text | PDF

Helminths and Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas)

• 2025 Therapeutic potential of hookworm proteins in promoting regulatory immune responses to modulate Trypanosoma cruzi induced liver inflammation and oxidative stress -- PDF
• 2023 Oct 12 Immunomodulatory proteins from hookworms reduce cardiac inflammation and modulate regulatory responses in a mouse model of chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection -- Full text | PDF
• 2017 Jun 1 S. mansoni-T. cruzi co-infection modulates arginase-1/iNOS expression, liver and heart disease in mice

Helminths and prion diseases

• 2020 Oct 2 The Effects of Immune System Modulation on Prion Disease Susceptibility and Pathogenesis -- Full text | PDF
• 2020 Mar 12 Accelerated onset of CNS prion disease in mice co-infected with a gastrointestinal helminth pathogen during the preclinical phase -- Full text | PDF
• 2019 Apr 30 Effect of co-infection with a small intestine-restricted helminth pathogen on oral prion disease pathogenesis in mice -- Full text | PDF
• 2017 Effect of congruent gastro-intestinal pathogen infection on oral prion disease susceptibility -- PDF (Thesis)
• 2004 Aug Nematode parasites and scrapie: experiments in sheep and mice

See also

• 2025 Mar 21 Acute LPS exposure enhances susceptibility to peripheral prion infection -- Full text | PDF
• 2024 Oct 1 Expanding the Prion Paradigm to Include Alzheimer and Parkinson Diseases
• 2016 Role of mononuclear phagocytes in prion pathogenesis (Thesis)
• 2015 Sep The Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissues in the Small Intestine, Not the Large Intestine, Play a Major Role in Oral Prion Disease Pathogenesis -- Full text | PDF
• 2011 May 17 Exacerbation of CNS inflammation and neurodegeneration by systemic LPS treatment is independent of circulating IL-1β and IL-6 -- Full text

Helminths and other helminths

• 2019 Sep Increased Prevalence of Cestode Infection Associated with History of Deworming among Primary School Children in Ethiopia -- Full text | PDF
• 2018 Mar 14 Predicting the effects of parasite co-infection across species boundaries -- Full text | PDF
• 2011 Sep Necator americanus and helminth co-infections: further down-modulation of hookworm-specific type 1 immune responses -- Full text | PDF
• 2008 Nov 1 Coinfection with the intestinal nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus markedly reduces hepatic egg-induced immunopathology and proinflammatory cytokines in mouse models of severe schistosomiasis -- Full text | PDF
• 2001 Sep Parasite-specific antibody and cellular immune responses in human infected with Necator americanus and Oesophagostomum bifurcum

Necator Americanus and IFN-γ

To be completed.

• 2008 Jan 15 Ecological rules governing helminth-microparasite coinfection -- Full text | PDF (Tables here)
• 2004 Aug 15 A secreted protein from the human hookworm necator americanus binds selectively to NK cells and induces IFN-gamma production.

To be combined with:

• 2024 Apr 19 Interferon-γ and infectious diseases: Lessons and prospects

Regarding IFN-γ, see: Interferon gamma: Interactions

See also

• The effects of helminths on the immune system
• Helminthic therapy and vaccines

The reintroduction to the digestive tract of a controlled number of specially domesticated, mutualistic helminths (intestinal worms) in the form of microscopic eggs or larvae to reconstitute a depleted biome to treat or prevent chronic inflammation, autoimmune disease and other immune-related disorders, including allergy.

An intestinal worm which grows large enough to be seen with the naked eye when mature but which is microscopic when administered in helminthic therapy. Wikipedia:Helminths

The reintroduction to the digestive tract of a controlled number of specially domesticated, mutualistic helminths (intestinal worms) in the form of microscopic eggs or larvae to reconstitute a depleted biome to treat or prevent chronic inflammation, autoimmune disease and other immune-related disorders, including allergy.

a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause.

An intestinal worm which grows large enough to be seen with the naked eye when mature but which is microscopic when administered in helminthic therapy. Wikipedia:Helminths

The reintroduction to the digestive tract of a controlled number of specially domesticated, mutualistic helminths (intestinal worms) in the form of microscopic eggs or larvae to reconstitute a depleted biome to treat or prevent chronic inflammation, autoimmune disease and other immune-related disorders, including allergy.

An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits at the host’s expense. (The organisms used in helminthic therapy are, strictly speaking, not parasites, but mutualists, because they have a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with their hosts.)

Someone who treats their own disease or condition without medical assistance.

helminthic therapy

the human hookworm, Necator americanus

A helminth that lives in the small intestine. Necator americanus (NA) is the only hookworm species used in helminthic therapy. Its microscopic larvae are applied periodically to the skin.

hookworm, usually referring to the human hookworm, Necator americanus

The introduction of an infectious agent into an organism. Helminth inoculation

A helminth that lives in the small intestine. Necator americanus (NA) is the only hookworm species used in helminthic therapy. Its microscopic larvae are applied periodically to the skin.

Also known as regional enteritis, this is an inflammatory disease of the intestines that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus, causing a wide variety of symptoms. It primarily causes abdominal pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody if inflammation is severe), vomiting or weight loss, but may also cause complications outside the gastrointestinal tract such as skin rashes, arthritis, inflammation of the eye, tiredness and lack of concentration.

hookworm, usually referring to the human hookworm, Necator americanus

Hymenolepis diminuta cysticercoids (Hi-men-o-lep'is dim-a-nu-ta sis-ti-sur-koid) - the larval cysts of the rat tapeworm, Hymenolepis diminuta

An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits at the host’s expense. (The organisms used in helminthic therapy are, strictly speaking, not parasites, but mutualists, because they have a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with their hosts.)

An intestinal worm which grows large enough to be seen with the naked eye when mature but which is microscopic when administered in helminthic therapy. Wikipedia:Helminths

hookworm, usually referring to the human hookworm, Necator americanus

The reintroduction to the digestive tract of a controlled number of specially domesticated, mutualistic helminths (intestinal worms) in the form of microscopic eggs or larvae to reconstitute a depleted biome to treat or prevent chronic inflammation, autoimmune disease and other immune-related disorders, including allergy.

The specific population of microorganisms living in a certain part of the body, such as the gut. "Microbiome" refers to all the microorganisms living in and on the body, or the genome of these microorganisms. These two terms are often used interchangeably.

the ova (eggs) of the porcine (pig) whipworm, Trichuris suis

All the microorganisms living in and on the body, or the genome of these microorganisms. "Microbiota" refers to the specific population of microorganisms living in a certain part of the body, such as the gut. These two terms are often used interchangeably.

An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits at the host’s expense. (The organisms used in helminthic therapy are, strictly speaking, not parasites, but mutualists, because they have a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with their hosts.)

A helminth with a tapering whiplike body that lives in the colon. In helminthic therapy, the microscopic eggs of either the human Trichuris trichiura (TTO) or pig Trichuris suis (TSO) are taken in a drink.

The human whipworm used in helminthic therapy and taken periodically as microscopic eggs (TTO) in a drink.

A substance capable of eliminating or destroying intestinal worms.

A species of helminth that is unsuitable for helminthic therapy, e.g., Ascaris lumbricoides.

The species of human hookworm used in helminthic therapy. Its microscopic larvae are applied periodically to the skin.